Topic 6 asks you to move fluently between five nested scales: the Earth (a rotating planet), the Solar System (one star plus everything bound to it), the Milky Way (many billions of stars), the Universe (many billions of galaxies), and the light-year (the ruler that makes the last two scales writable). Scale errors are easy to make in this topic and expensive when they happen — using the word galaxy when you mean Solar System, or treating a light-year as a time.

Space Physics is the one topic where you cannot go and check the answer in a school laboratory. That makes it essential to know what kind of statement you are making. Four labels are used throughout this chapter, and the last part of nearly every long-answer question in Topic 6 depends on getting them the right way round.

The Earth does two entirely different motions at the same time, and a third body — the Moon — moves around it. It rotates on its own tilted axis once in approximately 24 hours. It also orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days, carrying that fixed tilt all the way round. The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately one month. Each of those three motions is the cause of one everyday observation, and the syllabus asks you for the observation, not just the number.

The Solar System is one star and everything gravitationally bound to it: the Sun, the eight planets, minor planets including dwarf planets such as Pluto and the asteroids of the asteroid belt, the moons that orbit the planets, and smaller bodies including comets and natural satellites. The Sun holds most of the mass, and that is why its gravitational attraction keeps everything else in orbit. The four planets nearest the Sun are small and rocky; the four furthest are large and gaseous — a difference the accretion model explains.

Core 6.2.1.1 The Sun is a star of medium size, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, and it radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. That is the whole of the Core requirement for this sub-topic.Supplement 6.2.1.2 Extended candidates go one step further and account for where the energy comes from: nuclear reactions that release energy — in a stable star, the fusion of hydrogen into helium. Nothing is burning in any chemical sense.

Galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars. The Sun is one star in the galaxy known as the Milky Way, and the other stars in the Milky Way are much further from the Earth than the Sun is. Because those distances are so large, they are measured in light-years — and one light-year is a distance: the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in one year.

Key ideas to remember

The one-sentence map: the Earth orbits the Sun, the Sun is one star in the Milky Way, the Milky Way is one galaxy among many billions, and the whole set of galaxies is observed to be moving apart. Mastery check — say that sentence out loud without looking, then continue.
Section 6.2.2 in one line: cloud → protostar → stable star → hydrogen runs out, then the mass decides: red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf, or red supergiant → supernova → neutron star or black hole. Mastery check — write both pathways from memory, in order, without looking at Figure 6.18.
The Supplement chain in one line: supernova brightness gives \(d\), redshift gives \(v\), the gradient of \(v\) against \(d\) is \(H_0 = 2.2 \times 10^{-18}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\), and \(1/H_0 \approx 4.5 \times 10^{17}\ \mathrm{s}\) estimates the age of the Universe — while the CMBR, stretched into the microwaves by the same expansion, supplies a second, independent line of evidence.
Section 6.2.3 in one line: lines shifted to longer wavelengths mean galaxies are receding, in every direction, so the Universe is expanding; run it backwards and it was hotter and denser — which supports the Big Bang theory. Mastery check — write the seven-step chain from Figure 6.27 from memory, using the verb “supports” at the end.

What you need to be able to do

I can state that the Earth is a planet that rotates once in approximately 24 hours on an axis that is tilted, and use this to explain the apparent daily motion of the Sun across the sky and the periodic cycle of day and night. Core 6.1.1.1
I can state that the Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days, and use this, together with the fixed tilt of the axis, to explain the periodic nature of the seasons. Core 6.1.1.2
I can state that the Moon takes approximately one month to orbit the Earth, and use this to explain the periodic nature of the Moon's cycle of phases. Core 6.1.1.3
I can describe the Solar System as containing one star, the Sun; the eight named planets in order from the Sun; minor planets that orbit the Sun, including dwarf planets such as Pluto and asteroids in the asteroid belt; moons that orbit the planets; and smaller Solar System bodies, including comets and natural satellites. Core 6.1.2.1
I can state that the four planets nearest the Sun are rocky and small and the four furthest are gaseous and large, and explain this difference using an accretion model of Solar System formation that refers to gravity, the presence of many elements in interstellar clouds of gas and dust, and the rotation of the cloud with the formation of an accretion disc. Core 6.1.2.2
I can state that the gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet depends on the mass of the planet, and that the field strength around a planet decreases as the distance from the planet increases. Core 6.1.2.3
I can calculate the time it takes light to travel a significant distance, such as between objects in the Solar System. Core 6.1.2.4
I can state that the Sun contains most of the mass of the Solar System, and explain that this is why the planets orbit the Sun. Core 6.1.2.5
I can state that the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Core 6.1.2.6
I can state that the Sun is a star of medium size, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, and that it radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible light and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Core 6.2.1.1
I can state that galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars; that the Sun is a star in the galaxy known as the Milky Way; that other stars making up the Milky Way are much further away from the Earth than the Sun is; and that astronomical distances can be measured in light-years, where one light-year is the distance travelled in the vacuum of space by light in one year. Core 6.2.2.1
I can state that the Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies making up the Universe, and that the diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years. Core 6.2.3.1
I can describe redshift as an increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from receding stars and galaxies. Core 6.2.3.2
I can state that the light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light emitted on the Earth. Core 6.2.3.3
I can state that redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is expanding, and that it supports the Big Bang Theory. Core 6.2.3.4
I can define average orbital speed from the equation \(v = 2\pi r / T\), where \(r\) is the average radius of the orbit and \(T\) is the orbital period, and recall and use this equation. Supplement 6.1.1.4
I can state that planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits, and recall that the Sun is not at the centre of the elliptical orbit except when the orbit is approximately circular. Supplement 6.1.2.7
I can analyse and interpret planetary data about orbital distance, orbital duration, density, surface temperature and uniform gravitational field strength at the planet's surface. Supplement 6.1.2.8
I can state that the strength of the Sun's gravitational field decreases, and that the orbital speeds of the planets decrease, as the distance from the Sun increases. Supplement 6.1.2.9
I can state that an object in an elliptical orbit travels faster when it is closer to the Sun, and explain this using the conservation of energy. Supplement 6.1.2.10
I can state that stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy, and that in stable stars the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen into helium. Supplement 6.2.1.2
I can state that one light-year is equal to \(9.5 \times 10^{15}\ \mathrm{m}\). Supplement 6.2.2.2
I can describe the life cycle of a star: formation from interstellar clouds of gas and dust containing hydrogen; the protostar as a collapsing cloud whose temperature rises because of its internal gravitational attraction; the stable star in which inward gravitational attraction is balanced by an outward force due to the high central temperature; the exhaustion of hydrogen fuel; expansion into a red giant, or a red supergiant for more massive stars; the planetary nebula with a white dwarf at its centre; the supernova explosion leaving a neutron star or a black hole in a nebula containing hydrogen and new heavier elements; and the formation of new stars with orbiting planets from that nebula. Supplement 6.2.2.3
I can state that microwave radiation of a specific frequency is observed at all points in space around us, and that it is known as cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). Supplement 6.2.3.5
I can explain that the CMBR was produced shortly after the Universe was formed, and that this radiation has been expanded into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum as the Universe expanded. Supplement 6.2.3.6
I can state that the speed \(v\) at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth can be found from the change in wavelength of the galaxy's starlight due to redshift. Supplement 6.2.3.7
I can state that the distance \(d\) of a far galaxy can be determined using the brightness of a supernova in that galaxy. Supplement 6.2.3.8
I can define the Hubble constant \(H_0\) as the ratio of the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth to its distance from the Earth, and recall and use the equation \(H_0 = v/d\). Supplement 6.2.3.9
I can state that the current estimate for \(H_0\) is \(2.2 \times 10^{-18}\) per second. Supplement 6.2.3.10
I can state that the equation \(d/v = 1/H_0\) represents an estimate for the age of the Universe, and that this is evidence for the idea that all the matter in the Universe was present at a single point. Supplement 6.2.3.11

Why Space Physics matters

Why it matters: statements 6.1.1.1, 6.1.1.2 and 6.1.1.3 each say “and use this to explain”. Quoting the 24 hours, the 365 days or the one month on its own earns nothing — the mark is in the consequence you draw from it. These three are the only numbers in this sub-topic you are expected to recall without being given them. Three more appear later in the chapter: the Milky Way’s diameter of about 100 000 light-years (Core 6.2.3.1), and — for Extended candidates only — the value of the light-year (Supplement 6.2.2.2) and of the Hubble constant (Supplement 6.2.3.10). The reference sheet lists all six together.

Common mistakes to avoid

Error Repair Common-Mistake Clinic Twenty-one errors that cost marks in Topic 6. Each one is stated as a student would write it, then corrected, then given an exam-safe replacement sentence and a retrieval check. The individual sections above develop several of these in more detail; this is the consolidated list to revise from. Scroll the table sideways on a narrow screen. The twenty-one Topic 6 misconceptions, with corrections and exam-safe replacements #The mistakeWhy it is wrong & the corrected modelExam-safe sentenceRetrieval check 1“Rotation and orbit mean the same thing.” Different axes, periods and consequences. Rotation spins the Earth about an axis inside itself in ~24 h; orbiting carries the Earth round the Sun in ~365 days. “The Earth rotates on its tilted axis in about 24 hours and separately orbits the Sun in about 365 days.” Which motion gives the day? Rotation. 2“Seasons occur because the Earth is much closer to the Sun in summer.” The orbit is approximately circular, so the distance barely changes; and the two hemispheres have opposite seasons at once. The axis is tilted. “The Earth's orbit is approximately circular; the Earth's axis is tilted.” Which observation rules out the distance explanation? Opposite seasons in the two hemispheres at the same time. 3“The Moon has no gravity.” Every mass has a gravitational field. The Moon's surface field strength is smaller than the Earth's because its mass is much smaller — not zero. “The Moon's surface gravitational field strength is smaller than the Earth's because the Moon has much less mass.” On the Moon, does an astronaut's mass or weight change? Weight only. 4“Gravity switches off in orbit.” If it did, the orbiting body would move in a straight line and leave. Apparent weightlessness happens because astronaut and spacecraft fall together. “The gravitational attraction still acts; it is what keeps the object in orbit.” What would the path become if gravity vanished? A straight line at constant speed. 5“A planet continues around the Sun because no force acts.” Circular motion requires a resultant force towards the centre. With no force there would be no curved path at all. “The gravitational attraction of the Sun provides the resultant force towards the centre.” Name the force that keeps a planet in orbit. Gravitational attraction of the Sun. 6“Centripetal force is an extra force alongside gravity.” “Centripetal” names a direction, not a separate force. For a planet, gravity is the inward resultant force. “The gravitational attraction of the Sun is the inward resultant force.” How many force arrows should a planet-orbit diagram carry? One inward arrow. 7“Planets further from the Sun orbit faster.” Inverted. Further out, the Sun's field is weaker and orbital speeds are lower: about 47 km/s at Mercury against about 5 km/s at Neptune. “As distance from the Sun increases, the Sun's field strength decreases and orbital speeds decrease.” Jupiter or Saturn — which is faster? Jupiter. 8“Orbital radius means orbital diameter.” Substituting a diameter for \(r\) doubles the circumference and doubles the answer. “\(r\) is measured from the centre of the central body; halve any diameter before substituting.” An orbit is 84 000 km across. What is \(r\)? \(4.2 \times 10^{7}\ \mathrm{m}\). 9“The Solar System and the Milky Way are the same.” The Solar System is one star and its orbiting bodies. The Milky Way is a galaxy of many billions of stars, containing the Solar System. “The Solar System is one star system inside the Milky Way galaxy.” Order by size: Earth, Milky Way, Solar System, Universe. Earth, Solar System, Milky Way, Universe. 10“The Sun is a planet.” The Sun releases energy by nuclear fusion and everything else orbits it. Planets do neither. “The Sun is a star — the only star in the Solar System.” What single test separates a star from a planet? A star releases energy by fusion. 11“Pluto is one of the eight planets.” Pluto is named in the syllabus as an example of a dwarf planet, a kind of minor planet. “Pluto is a dwarf planet, not one of the eight planets.” Name the eighth planet from the Sun. Neptune. 12“A light-year is a time.” The “year” says how long the light travelled; what is measured is how far it got. “One light-year is the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in one year.” Is a light-year a unit of distance or of time? Distance. 13“The Sun is the largest possible type of star.” The Sun is a star of medium size. Red giants and red supergiants are far larger. “The Sun is a star of medium size.” Give the syllabus word for the Sun's size. Medium. 14“Stars release energy by chemical burning.” Burning is chemical, needs oxygen, and releases far too little energy. Stars run on nuclear reactions. “The Sun releases energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.” Rewrite “the Sun burns hydrogen”. “The Sun fuses hydrogen into helium.” 15“Fusion and fission are identical.” Opposites. Fusion joins small nuclei; fission splits a large one. Both release energy — that is all they share. “Fusion combines two smaller nuclei into a larger one, releasing energy.” Which process powers stars? Fusion. 16“No forces act on a stable star.” Two large opposing forces are in balance, not absent. “The inward force of gravitational attraction is balanced by an outward force due to the high temperature in the centre.” Name both forces in a stable star. Inward gravitational attraction; outward force from the high central temperature. 17“Every star becomes a supernova.” Only more massive stars do. A less massive star ends as a planetary nebula with a white dwarf at its centre. “The final stages depend on the mass of the star.” What is the final stage for a less massive star? A white dwarf at the centre of a planetary nebula. 18“Every star eventually becomes a black hole.” A black hole is one of two possible supernova remnants — the other is a neutron star — and only high-mass stars reach a supernova. “A supernova leaves a neutron star or a black hole.” Name both possible supernova remnants. Neutron star; black hole. 19“A planetary nebula contains newly formed planets.” The name is a historical accident. A planetary nebula is the shed outer layers of a red giant, with a white dwarf at its centre. “A planetary nebula is formed from the outer layers of a red giant and contains no planets.” What sits at the centre of a planetary nebula? A white dwarf. 20“Redshift means a galaxy simply looks red.” Redshift is a measured displacement of identified spectral lines towards longer wavelengths. A shifted violet line can still look blue. “The spectral lines appear at longer wavelengths than the same lines measured in a laboratory.” What must the observed spectrum be compared with? The laboratory reference spectrum. 21“Redshift alone proves every detail of the Big Bang” / “the Big Bang was an ordinary explosion at one place.” Redshift supports the model; it does not prove it. And the model describes space itself expanding everywhere, not material flying out from one location. “Redshift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding, which supports the Big Bang theory.” Replace “proves” with a safer verb. “Provides evidence for”.

Examiner tips

Answer Craft Examiner-Language Guidance What this section is and is not. The command-word meanings below are taken from the command-word list printed in the Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 syllabus for 2026, 2027 and 2028 (version 2). Everything else on this page is Academiq's own advice on phrasing. No examiner is quoted, no mark scheme is reproduced, and no claim is made about how often any idea has appeared in past examinations. Questions in this chapter are labelled exam-style because they were written for this resource; they are not past-paper questions. Command words that appear in Topic 6 questions Command words, their syllabus meanings, and what a Topic 6 answer should look like Command wordSyllabus meaningWhat that means here Stateexpress in clear termsOne short sentence, no explanation. “The gravitational attraction of the Sun.” Definegive precise meaningThe learned wording, complete. For orbital speed, name both the circumference and the period. Describestate the points of a topic / give characteristics and main featuresThe features in order, with no reasons required. Life-cycle sequences live here. Explainset out purposes or reasons / make the relationships between things clear / say why and/or how and support with relevant evidenceEvery sentence needs a because or a so. This is where the evidence chain belongs. Calculatework out from given facts, figures or informationEquation, conversion, substitution, answer, unit. Show all five. Determineestablish an answer using the information availableLike calculate, but you must first extract the numbers from a table or graph. Compareidentify/comment on similarities and/or differencesBoth items in every sentence: “Mercury orbits at 47 km/s whereas Neptune orbits at 5 km/s.” Suggestapply knowledge and understanding to situations where there are a range of valid responses in order to make proposals / put forward considerationsAn unfamiliar context. Name the physics you are applying, then apply it. Predictsuggest what may happen based on available informationUse the trend you have just established, and say which trend you used. Deduceconclude from available informationState the data you used, then the conclusion. Do not skip the first half. Justifysupport a case with evidence/argumentQuote the actual numbers or observations that support your claim. Commentgive an informed opinionA judgement plus the reason for it. Giveproduce an answer from a given source or recall/memoryA bare answer from recall or from the stem. No working, no justification. Identifyname/select/recognisePick it out and name it. No description needed. Sketchmake a simple freehand drawing showing the key features, taking care over proportionsLabel both axes with quantity and unit, and get the shape right — a falling curve, not a falling straight line. Note The command word evaluate does not appear in the 0625 command-word list for this cycle. Where a question wants you to weigh evidence, it will use comment, justify, deduce or suggest instead. If you meet “evaluate” in a textbook exercise, treat it as comment plus justify. Phrasing that costs marks, and what to write instead Ten phrase swaps for Topic 6 Instead of…Write…Why “gravity pulls it round”“the gravitational attraction of the Sun acts towards the centre of the Sun”Names the source and the direction. “centripetal force keeps it in orbit”“the gravitational attraction of the Sun is the resultant force towards the centre”Avoids inventing a second force. “the speed changes” (of a circular orbit)“the speed is constant but the velocity changes because the direction changes”Speed and velocity are different quantities. “a light-year is how long light takes”“a light-year is the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in one year”A light-year is a distance. “the Sun burns”“the Sun fuses hydrogen into helium”Nuclear, not chemical. “the star explodes when it dies”“a red supergiant explodes as a supernova”Only the high-mass branch explodes. “it turns into a black hole”“a neutron star or a black hole is left at the centre”Both outcomes are in the syllabus. “the galaxy looks red”“the spectral lines are at longer wavelengths than the laboratory values”Redshift is a line shift, not a colour. “this proves the Big Bang”“this provides evidence for the Big Bang theory”Evidence supports models; it does not prove them. “it is hotter because it is closer”“Venus is further from the Sun than Mercury yet hotter, so distance is not the only factor; the atmosphere also matters”Quotes the data and names the competing factor. The three-second unit check. Before you write any numerical answer down, ask: is \(r\) in metres? Is \(T\) in seconds? Then the speed is in m/s. A period left in days is not a physics error, but it costs the same marks as one, and it is the easiest slip to make in this topic.

Verified Curriculum Content

Every chapter note, MCQ explanation, and structured mark scheme is rigorously vetted by Cambridge curriculum specialists.

Chapter overview

A summary of this Physics chapter — open a section to read it. The full notes, worked examples and practice questions are in the study modules above.

What is Space Physics about?

Key ideas to remember

The one-sentence map: the Earth orbits the Sun, the Sun is one star in the Milky Way, the Milky Way is one galaxy among many billions, and the whole set of galaxies is observed to be moving apart. Mastery check — say that sentence out loud without looking, then continue.
Section 6.2.2 in one line: cloud → protostar → stable star → hydrogen runs out, then the mass decides: red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf, or red supergiant → supernova → neutron star or black hole. Mastery check — write both pathways from memory, in order, without looking at Figure 6.18.
The Supplement chain in one line: supernova brightness gives \(d\), redshift gives \(v\), the gradient of \(v\) against \(d\) is \(H_0 = 2.2 \times 10^{-18}\ \mathrm{s^{-1}}\), and \(1/H_0 \approx 4.5 \times 10^{17}\ \mathrm{s}\) estimates the age of the Universe — while the CMBR, stretched into the microwaves by the same expansion, supplies a second, independent line of evidence.
Section 6.2.3 in one line: lines shifted to longer wavelengths mean galaxies are receding, in every direction, so the Universe is expanding; run it backwards and it was hotter and denser — which supports the Big Bang theory. Mastery check — write the seven-step chain from Figure 6.27 from memory, using the verb “supports” at the end.

What you need to be able to do

I can state that the Earth is a planet that rotates once in approximately 24 hours on an axis that is tilted, and use this to explain the apparent daily motion of the Sun across the sky and the periodic cycle of day and night. Core 6.1.1.1
I can state that the Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days, and use this, together with the fixed tilt of the axis, to explain the periodic nature of the seasons. Core 6.1.1.2
I can state that the Moon takes approximately one month to orbit the Earth, and use this to explain the periodic nature of the Moon's cycle of phases. Core 6.1.1.3
I can describe the Solar System as containing one star, the Sun; the eight named planets in order from the Sun; minor planets that orbit the Sun, including dwarf planets such as Pluto and asteroids in the asteroid belt; moons that orbit the planets; and smaller Solar System bodies, including comets and natural satellites. Core 6.1.2.1
I can state that the four planets nearest the Sun are rocky and small and the four furthest are gaseous and large, and explain this difference using an accretion model of Solar System formation that refers to gravity, the presence of many elements in interstellar clouds of gas and dust, and the rotation of the cloud with the formation of an accretion disc. Core 6.1.2.2
I can state that the gravitational field strength at the surface of a planet depends on the mass of the planet, and that the field strength around a planet decreases as the distance from the planet increases. Core 6.1.2.3
I can calculate the time it takes light to travel a significant distance, such as between objects in the Solar System. Core 6.1.2.4
I can state that the Sun contains most of the mass of the Solar System, and explain that this is why the planets orbit the Sun. Core 6.1.2.5
I can state that the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the Sun. Core 6.1.2.6
I can state that the Sun is a star of medium size, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium, and that it radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible light and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Core 6.2.1.1
I can state that galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars; that the Sun is a star in the galaxy known as the Milky Way; that other stars making up the Milky Way are much further away from the Earth than the Sun is; and that astronomical distances can be measured in light-years, where one light-year is the distance travelled in the vacuum of space by light in one year. Core 6.2.2.1
I can state that the Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies making up the Universe, and that the diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years. Core 6.2.3.1
I can describe redshift as an increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from receding stars and galaxies. Core 6.2.3.2
I can state that the light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light emitted on the Earth. Core 6.2.3.3
I can state that redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is expanding, and that it supports the Big Bang Theory. Core 6.2.3.4
I can define average orbital speed from the equation \(v = 2\pi r / T\), where \(r\) is the average radius of the orbit and \(T\) is the orbital period, and recall and use this equation. Supplement 6.1.1.4
I can state that planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits, and recall that the Sun is not at the centre of the elliptical orbit except when the orbit is approximately circular. Supplement 6.1.2.7
I can analyse and interpret planetary data about orbital distance, orbital duration, density, surface temperature and uniform gravitational field strength at the planet's surface. Supplement 6.1.2.8
I can state that the strength of the Sun's gravitational field decreases, and that the orbital speeds of the planets decrease, as the distance from the Sun increases. Supplement 6.1.2.9
I can state that an object in an elliptical orbit travels faster when it is closer to the Sun, and explain this using the conservation of energy. Supplement 6.1.2.10
I can state that stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy, and that in stable stars the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen into helium. Supplement 6.2.1.2
I can state that one light-year is equal to \(9.5 \times 10^{15}\ \mathrm{m}\). Supplement 6.2.2.2
I can describe the life cycle of a star: formation from interstellar clouds of gas and dust containing hydrogen; the protostar as a collapsing cloud whose temperature rises because of its internal gravitational attraction; the stable star in which inward gravitational attraction is balanced by an outward force due to the high central temperature; the exhaustion of hydrogen fuel; expansion into a red giant, or a red supergiant for more massive stars; the planetary nebula with a white dwarf at its centre; the supernova explosion leaving a neutron star or a black hole in a nebula containing hydrogen and new heavier elements; and the formation of new stars with orbiting planets from that nebula. Supplement 6.2.2.3
I can state that microwave radiation of a specific frequency is observed at all points in space around us, and that it is known as cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). Supplement 6.2.3.5
I can explain that the CMBR was produced shortly after the Universe was formed, and that this radiation has been expanded into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum as the Universe expanded. Supplement 6.2.3.6
I can state that the speed \(v\) at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth can be found from the change in wavelength of the galaxy's starlight due to redshift. Supplement 6.2.3.7
I can state that the distance \(d\) of a far galaxy can be determined using the brightness of a supernova in that galaxy. Supplement 6.2.3.8
I can define the Hubble constant \(H_0\) as the ratio of the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth to its distance from the Earth, and recall and use the equation \(H_0 = v/d\). Supplement 6.2.3.9
I can state that the current estimate for \(H_0\) is \(2.2 \times 10^{-18}\) per second. Supplement 6.2.3.10
I can state that the equation \(d/v = 1/H_0\) represents an estimate for the age of the Universe, and that this is evidence for the idea that all the matter in the Universe was present at a single point. Supplement 6.2.3.11

Why Space Physics matters

Common mistakes to avoid

Error Repair Common-Mistake Clinic Twenty-one errors that cost marks in Topic 6. Each one is stated as a student would write it, then corrected, then given an exam-safe replacement sentence and a retrieval check. The individual sections above develop several of these in more detail; this is the consolidated list to revise from. Scroll the table sideways on a narrow screen. The twenty-one Topic 6 misconceptions, with corrections and exam-safe replacements #The mistakeWhy it is wrong & the corrected modelExam-safe sentenceRetrieval check 1“Rotation and orbit mean the same thing.” Different axes, periods and consequences. Rotation spins the Earth about an axis inside itself in ~24 h; orbiting carries the Earth round the Sun in ~365 days. “The Earth rotates on its tilted axis in about 24 hours and separately orbits the Sun in about 365 days.” Which motion gives the day? Rotation. 2“Seasons occur because the Earth is much closer to the Sun in summer.” The orbit is approximately circular, so the distance barely changes; and the two hemispheres have opposite seasons at once. The axis is tilted. “The Earth's orbit is approximately circular; the Earth's axis is tilted.” Which observation rules out the distance explanation? Opposite seasons in the two hemispheres at the same time. 3“The Moon has no gravity.” Every mass has a gravitational field. The Moon's surface field strength is smaller than the Earth's because its mass is much smaller — not zero. “The Moon's surface gravitational field strength is smaller than the Earth's because the Moon has much less mass.” On the Moon, does an astronaut's mass or weight change? Weight only. 4“Gravity switches off in orbit.” If it did, the orbiting body would move in a straight line and leave. Apparent weightlessness happens because astronaut and spacecraft fall together. “The gravitational attraction still acts; it is what keeps the object in orbit.” What would the path become if gravity vanished? A straight line at constant speed. 5“A planet continues around the Sun because no force acts.” Circular motion requires a resultant force towards the centre. With no force there would be no curved path at all. “The gravitational attraction of the Sun provides the resultant force towards the centre.” Name the force that keeps a planet in orbit. Gravitational attraction of the Sun. 6“Centripetal force is an extra force alongside gravity.” “Centripetal” names a direction, not a separate force. For a planet, gravity is the inward resultant force. “The gravitational attraction of the Sun is the inward resultant force.” How many force arrows should a planet-orbit diagram carry? One inward arrow. 7“Planets further from the Sun orbit faster.” Inverted. Further out, the Sun's field is weaker and orbital speeds are lower: about 47 km/s at Mercury against about 5 km/s at Neptune. “As distance from the Sun increases, the Sun's field strength decreases and orbital speeds decrease.” Jupiter or Saturn — which is faster? Jupiter. 8“Orbital radius means orbital diameter.” Substituting a diameter for \(r\) doubles the circumference and doubles the answer. “\(r\) is measured from the centre of the central body; halve any diameter before substituting.” An orbit is 84 000 km across. What is \(r\)? \(4.2 \times 10^{7}\ \mathrm{m}\). 9“The Solar System and the Milky Way are the same.” The Solar System is one star and its orbiting bodies. The Milky Way is a galaxy of many billions of stars, containing the Solar System. “The Solar System is one star system inside the Milky Way galaxy.” Order by size: Earth, Milky Way, Solar System, Universe. Earth, Solar System, Milky Way, Universe. 10“The Sun is a planet.” The Sun releases energy by nuclear fusion and everything else orbits it. Planets do neither. “The Sun is a star — the only star in the Solar System.” What single test separates a star from a planet? A star releases energy by fusion. 11“Pluto is one of the eight planets.” Pluto is named in the syllabus as an example of a dwarf planet, a kind of minor planet. “Pluto is a dwarf planet, not one of the eight planets.” Name the eighth planet from the Sun. Neptune. 12“A light-year is a time.” The “year” says how long the light travelled; what is measured is how far it got. “One light-year is the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in one year.” Is a light-year a unit of distance or of time? Distance. 13“The Sun is the largest possible type of star.” The Sun is a star of medium size. Red giants and red supergiants are far larger. “The Sun is a star of medium size.” Give the syllabus word for the Sun's size. Medium. 14“Stars release energy by chemical burning.” Burning is chemical, needs oxygen, and releases far too little energy. Stars run on nuclear reactions. “The Sun releases energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.” Rewrite “the Sun burns hydrogen”. “The Sun fuses hydrogen into helium.” 15“Fusion and fission are identical.” Opposites. Fusion joins small nuclei; fission splits a large one. Both release energy — that is all they share. “Fusion combines two smaller nuclei into a larger one, releasing energy.” Which process powers stars? Fusion. 16“No forces act on a stable star.” Two large opposing forces are in balance, not absent. “The inward force of gravitational attraction is balanced by an outward force due to the high temperature in the centre.” Name both forces in a stable star. Inward gravitational attraction; outward force from the high central temperature. 17“Every star becomes a supernova.” Only more massive stars do. A less massive star ends as a planetary nebula with a white dwarf at its centre. “The final stages depend on the mass of the star.” What is the final stage for a less massive star? A white dwarf at the centre of a planetary nebula. 18“Every star eventually becomes a black hole.” A black hole is one of two possible supernova remnants — the other is a neutron star — and only high-mass stars reach a supernova. “A supernova leaves a neutron star or a black hole.” Name both possible supernova remnants. Neutron star; black hole. 19“A planetary nebula contains newly formed planets.” The name is a historical accident. A planetary nebula is the shed outer layers of a red giant, with a white dwarf at its centre. “A planetary nebula is formed from the outer layers of a red giant and contains no planets.” What sits at the centre of a planetary nebula? A white dwarf. 20“Redshift means a galaxy simply looks red.” Redshift is a measured displacement of identified spectral lines towards longer wavelengths. A shifted violet line can still look blue. “The spectral lines appear at longer wavelengths than the same lines measured in a laboratory.” What must the observed spectrum be compared with? The laboratory reference spectrum. 21“Redshift alone proves every detail of the Big Bang” / “the Big Bang was an ordinary explosion at one place.” Redshift supports the model; it does not prove it. And the model describes space itself expanding everywhere, not material flying out from one location. “Redshift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding, which supports the Big Bang theory.” Replace “proves” with a safer verb. “Provides evidence for”.

Examiner tips

Answer Craft Examiner-Language Guidance What this section is and is not. The command-word meanings below are taken from the command-word list printed in the Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625 syllabus for 2026, 2027 and 2028 (version 2). Everything else on this page is Academiq's own advice on phrasing. No examiner is quoted, no mark scheme is reproduced, and no claim is made about how often any idea has appeared in past examinations. Questions in this chapter are labelled exam-style because they were written for this resource; they are not past-paper questions. Command words that appear in Topic 6 questions Command words, their syllabus meanings, and what a Topic 6 answer should look like Command wordSyllabus meaningWhat that means here Stateexpress in clear termsOne short sentence, no explanation. “The gravitational attraction of the Sun.” Definegive precise meaningThe learned wording, complete. For orbital speed, name both the circumference and the period. Describestate the points of a topic / give characteristics and main featuresThe features in order, with no reasons required. Life-cycle sequences live here. Explainset out purposes or reasons / make the relationships between things clear / say why and/or how and support with relevant evidenceEvery sentence needs a because or a so. This is where the evidence chain belongs. Calculatework out from given facts, figures or informationEquation, conversion, substitution, answer, unit. Show all five. Determineestablish an answer using the information availableLike calculate, but you must first extract the numbers from a table or graph. Compareidentify/comment on similarities and/or differencesBoth items in every sentence: “Mercury orbits at 47 km/s whereas Neptune orbits at 5 km/s.” Suggestapply knowledge and understanding to situations where there are a range of valid responses in order to make proposals / put forward considerationsAn unfamiliar context. Name the physics you are applying, then apply it. Predictsuggest what may happen based on available informationUse the trend you have just established, and say which trend you used. Deduceconclude from available informationState the data you used, then the conclusion. Do not skip the first half. Justifysupport a case with evidence/argumentQuote the actual numbers or observations that support your claim. Commentgive an informed opinionA judgement plus the reason for it. Giveproduce an answer from a given source or recall/memoryA bare answer from recall or from the stem. No working, no justification. Identifyname/select/recognisePick it out and name it. No description needed. Sketchmake a simple freehand drawing showing the key features, taking care over proportionsLabel both axes with quantity and unit, and get the shape right — a falling curve, not a falling straight line. Note The command word evaluate does not appear in the 0625 command-word list for this cycle. Where a question wants you to weigh evidence, it will use comment, justify, deduce or suggest instead. If you meet “evaluate” in a textbook exercise, treat it as comment plus justify. Phrasing that costs marks, and what to write instead Ten phrase swaps for Topic 6 Instead of…Write…Why “gravity pulls it round”“the gravitational attraction of the Sun acts towards the centre of the Sun”Names the source and the direction. “centripetal force keeps it in orbit”“the gravitational attraction of the Sun is the resultant force towards the centre”Avoids inventing a second force. “the speed changes” (of a circular orbit)“the speed is constant but the velocity changes because the direction changes”Speed and velocity are different quantities. “a light-year is how long light takes”“a light-year is the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in one year”A light-year is a distance. “the Sun burns”“the Sun fuses hydrogen into helium”Nuclear, not chemical. “the star explodes when it dies”“a red supergiant explodes as a supernova”Only the high-mass branch explodes. “it turns into a black hole”“a neutron star or a black hole is left at the centre”Both outcomes are in the syllabus. “the galaxy looks red”“the spectral lines are at longer wavelengths than the laboratory values”Redshift is a line shift, not a colour. “this proves the Big Bang”“this provides evidence for the Big Bang theory”Evidence supports models; it does not prove them. “it is hotter because it is closer”“Venus is further from the Sun than Mercury yet hotter, so distance is not the only factor; the atmosphere also matters”Quotes the data and names the competing factor. The three-second unit check. Before you write any numerical answer down, ask: is \(r\) in metres? Is \(T\) in seconds? Then the speed is in m/s. A period left in days is not a physics error, but it costs the same marks as one, and it is the easiest slip to make in this topic.

Space Physics

Core Revision Module

Revision & Practice Book

Practice & Resources

Chapter overview

What is Space Physics about?

Key ideas to remember

What you need to be able to do

Why Space Physics matters

Common mistakes to avoid

Examiner tips

Academiq Edu Review Team

Space Physics

Core Revision Module

Revision & Practice Book

Practice & Resources

Chapter overview

What is Space Physics about?

Key ideas to remember

What you need to be able to do

Why Space Physics matters

Common mistakes to avoid

Examiner tips

Academiq Edu Review Team